Harappan Civilization

One of the great civilizations of antiquity, located in Pakistan and northwest India in the 3rd millennium BC. Nearly 300 settlements of the civilization are known: two large cities (Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa), and a number of smaller towns and villages (Chanhu-Daro, Judeirjo-Daro, Kalibangan, and Lothal). The Harappan civilization was characterized by a high level of architectural, craft, and technical achievement. We know little of the political, social, and economic structure of the civilization because, although it was literate, the script remains undeciphered. Like other early civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Harappan civilization was based on the cultivation of cereal crops (plus rice and cotton), probably with irrigation. Among the most distinctive achievements of this civilization are the architecture and town planning, with the use of true baked brick for building, and cities and towns laid out on a grid-iron street plan, perhaps the earliest examples of town planning in the world. Among crafts, the most outstanding were the seals, mostly made of steatite and decorated with carefully executed incised designs. The Harappan civilization came to an end early in the 2nd millennium, either as a result of environmental factors (excessive flooding) or as a result of invasions by Aryan intruders. It is divided into three phases - Early, Mature (Urban), and Late (Post-Urban) and emerged from Punjab and Baluchistan regions.

[Indus Valley civilization]. Name given to the civilization that flourished in Pakistan and northwest India in the later 3rd millennium bc, based on the flood plain of the River Indus and its tributaries. Nearly 300 settlements of the civilization are known: two large cities (Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa), a number of smaller towns (including Chanhu-Daro, Judeirjo-Daro, Kalibangan and Lothal) and many villages. The Harappan civilization was char- acterized by a high level of architectural, craft and technical achievement, but we know little about its social and economic organization and nothing about its military or political history, since although the civilization was literate the script is as yet undeciphered, and we are dependent on archaeological evidence alone for information. Like other early civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Harappan civilization was based on the cultivation, presumably with the help of irrigation, of the cereal crops wheat and barley. On some sites, in the later phases, rice was also grown and the cultivation of this crop may have opened up the rest of the subcontinent for food production, since environmentally it is much better adapted to rice cultivation than to that of wheat and barley. Cotton was grown for its fibre and actual cotton cloth — the earliest yet discovered anywhere — was found at Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal. The farmers also kept cattle, buffalo and perhaps also pigs and sheep. Camels, horses and asses were all used for transport and even elephants may have been domesticated. Among the most distinctive achievements of this civilization are the architecture and town planning, with the use of true baked brick for building, and cities and towns laid out on a grid-iron street plan, perhaps the earliest examples of town planning in the world. Among crafts, the most outstanding productions were those of the seal-cutters: thousands of seals have been found, mostly made of steatite and decorated with carefully executed incised designs, usually depicting animals associated with an inscription. Harappan civilization flourished from about the middle of the 3rd millennium bc; it came to an end early in the 2nd millennium, either as a result of environmental factors (especially excessive flooding) or as a result of invasions by Aryan intruders, or possibly a combination of different factors.