Beowulf

An heroic poem, considered the highest achievement of Old English literature and also the earliest European vernacular epic. Preserved in a single manuscript (Cotton Vitellius A XV) from c 1000 AD, it deals with events of the early 6th century and is believed to have been composed between 700 and 750. It did not appear in print until 1815. Beowulf is one of the earliest, longest and most complete examples of Anglo-Saxon verse. Although originally untitled, it was later named after the Scandinavian hero Beowulf. Its themes are essentially the conflict between good and evil and the nature of heroism; fantasy and reality are intertwined as the hero Beowulf fights Grendel and other semi-mythological monsters. There is no evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some characters, sites, and events in the poem can be historically verified. Perhaps Beowulf's greatest contribution to archaeology is the light the poem has shed on the funerary customs displayed in the Sutton Hoo ship burial. The opening passages describe how the dead King Scyld Scefing was borne out to sea in a ship; jewels were placed on his chest, armor and treasure heaped around his body, and a standard was hoisted overhead.

One of the earliest, longest and most complete examples of Anglo-Saxon verse. It takes the form of a heroic epic and was probably written sometime during the 8th century. The poem is of singular historical and social importance as well as being an outstanding literary document of the period. Its themes are essentially the conflict between good and evil and the nature of heroism; fantasy and reality are intertwined as the hero Beowulf fights Grendel and other semi-mythological monsters. The poem gives an impression of Scandinavian nobility, warriors and lesser mortals, describing their customs, weapons, armour, dress and even the timber banqueting halls. Perhaps Beowulf’s greatest contribution to archaeology is the light the poem has shed on the funerary customs displayed in the Sutton Hoo ship burial (see boat burial). The opening passages describe how the dead King Scyld Scefing was borne out to sea in a ship; jewels were placed on his chest, armour and treasure heaped around his body, and a standard was hoisted overhead. Bergen. A Norwegian royal foundation dating back to 1070 and the reign of King Olaf. The town occupies a sheltered position on Norway’s western coast, and was from the beginning an important trading port famous for its role in the North Atlantic fishing industry. Excavations begun in the Bryggen, the harbour area, in the mid-1950s revealed a sequence of levels that illustrate the evolution of the waterfront and its hinterland from the 11th century onwards. These levels have been accurately dated by a series of fires which occurred at various stages of Bergen’s history. The waterlogged conditions have preserved many of the timber buildings, streets and quays, and it seems that building styles changed considerably over 400 years. The 11th-century houses and warehouses were carried on piles and had sills at ground level, while in the Hanseatic period during the 14th and 15th centuries jetties became popular. The Bryggen excavations revealed a remarkable collection of imported pottery from all over Europe as well as quantities of leather and wooden objects. Parts of three trading ships or freighters were also found in the excavations, their timbers having been re-used in the buildings.